Tracking Power Usage in Mobile Home Heating Systems

Symptoms of illness attributed to a building

This article may have misleading content. Please help clarify the content. (November 2022)

This article needs more reliable medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources. Please review the contents of the article and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Sick building syndrome" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2022)

This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these messages)

(Learn how and when to remove this message)

Medical condition

Sick building syndrome
Specialty	Environmental medicine, immunology

Sick building syndrome (SBS) is a condition in which people develop symptoms of illness or become infected with chronic disease from the building in which they work or reside.^[1] In scientific literature, SBS is also known as building-related illness (BRI), building-related symptoms (BRS), or idiopathic environmental intolerance (IEI).

The main identifying observation is an increased incidence of complaints of such symptoms as headache, eye, nose, and throat irritation, fatigue, dizziness, and nausea. The 1989 Oxford English Dictionary defines SBS in that way.^[2] The World Health Organization created a 484-page tome on indoor air quality 1984, when SBS was attributed only to non-organic causes, and suggested that the book might form a basis for legislation or litigation.^[3]

The outbreaks may or may not be a direct result of inadequate or inappropriate cleaning.^[2] SBS has also been used to describe staff concerns in post-war buildings with faulty building aerodynamics, construction materials, construction process, and maintenance.^[2] Some symptoms tend to increase in severity with the time people spend in the building, often improving or even disappearing when people are away from the building.^[2][4] The term SBS is also used interchangeably with "building-related symptoms", which orients the name of the condition around patients' symptoms rather than a "sick" building.^[5]

Attempts have been made to connect sick building syndrome to various causes, such as contaminants produced by outgassing of some building materials, volatile organic compounds (VOC), improper exhaust ventilation of ozone (produced by the operation of some office machines), light industrial chemicals used within, and insufficient fresh-air intake or air filtration (see "Minimum efficiency reporting value").^[2] Sick building syndrome has also been attributed to heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, an attribution about which there are inconsistent findings.^[6]

Signs and symptoms

[edit]

Human exposure to aerosols has a variety of adverse health effects.^[7] Building occupants complain of symptoms such as sensory irritation of the eyes, nose, or throat; neurotoxic or general health problems; skin irritation; nonspecific hypersensitivity reactions; infectious diseases;^[8] and odor and taste sensations.^[9] Poor lighting has caused general malaise.^[10]

Extrinsic allergic alveolitis has been associated with the presence of fungi and bacteria in the moist air of residential houses and commercial offices.^[11] A study in 2017 correlated several inflammatory diseases of the respiratory tract with objective evidence of damp-caused damage in homes.^[12]

The WHO has classified the reported symptoms into broad categories, including mucous-membrane irritation (eye, nose, and throat irritation), neurotoxic effects (headaches, fatigue, and irritability), asthma and asthma-like symptoms (chest tightness and wheezing), skin dryness and irritation, and gastrointestinal complaints.^[13]

Several sick occupants may report individual symptoms that do not seem connected. The key to discovery is the increased incidence of illnesses in general with onset or exacerbation in a short period, usually weeks. In most cases, SBS symptoms are relieved soon after the occupants leave the particular room or zone.^[14] However, there can be lingering effects of various neurotoxins, which may not clear up when the occupant leaves the building. In some cases, including those of sensitive people, there are long-term health effects.^[15]

Cause

[edit]

ASHRAE has recognized that polluted urban air, designated within the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)'s air quality ratings as unacceptable, requires the installation of treatment such as filtration for which the HVAC practitioners generally apply carbon-impregnated filters and their likes. Different toxins will aggravate the human body in different ways. Some people are more allergic to mold, while others are highly sensitive to dust. Inadequate ventilation will exaggerate small problems (such as deteriorating fiberglass insulation or cooking fumes) into a much more serious indoor air quality problem.^[10]

Common products such as paint, insulation, rigid foam, particle board, plywood, duct liners, exhaust fumes and other chemical contaminants from indoor or outdoor sources, and biological contaminants can be trapped inside by the HVAC AC system. As this air is recycled using fan coils the overall oxygenation ratio drops and becomes harmful. When combined with other stress factors such as traffic noise and poor lighting, inhabitants of buildings located in a polluted urban area can quickly become ill as their immune system is overwhelmed.^[10]

Certain VOCs, considered toxic chemical contaminants to humans, are used as adhesives in many common building construction products. These aromatic carbon rings / VOCs can cause acute and chronic health effects in the occupants of a building, including cancer, paralysis, lung failure, and others. Bacterial spores, fungal spores, mold spores, pollen, and viruses are types of biological contaminants and can all cause allergic reactions or illness described as SBS. In addition, pollution from outdoors, such as motor vehicle exhaust, can enter buildings, worsen indoor air quality, and increase the indoor concentration of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.^[16] Adult SBS symptoms were associated with a history of allergic rhinitis, eczema and asthma.^[17]

A 2015 study concerning the association of SBS and indoor air pollutants in office buildings in Iran found that, as carbon dioxide increased in a building, nausea, headaches, nasal irritation, dyspnea, and throat dryness also rose.^[10] Some work conditions have been correlated with specific symptoms: brighter light, for example was significantly related to skin dryness, eye pain, and malaise.^[10] Higher temperature is correlated with sneezing, skin redness, itchy eyes, and headache; lower relative humidity has been associated with sneezing, skin redness, and eye pain.^[10]

In 1973, in response to the oil crisis and conservation concerns, ASHRAE Standards 62-73 and 62-81 reduced required ventilation from 10 cubic feet per minute (4.7 L/s) per person to 5 cubic feet per minute (2.4 L/s) per person, but this was found to be a contributing factor to sick building syndrome.^[18] As of the 2016 revision, ASHRAE ventilation standards call for 5 to 10 cubic feet per minute of ventilation per occupant (depending on the occupancy type) in addition to ventilation based on the zone floor area delivered to the breathing zone.^[19]

Workplace

[edit]

Excessive work stress or dissatisfaction, poor interpersonal relationships and poor communication are often seen to be associated with SBS, recent^[when?] studies show that a combination of environmental sensitivity and stress can greatly contribute to sick building syndrome.^{[15][citation needed]}

Greater effects were found with features of the psycho-social work environment including high job demands and low support. The report concluded that the physical environment of office buildings appears to be less important than features of the psycho-social work environment in explaining differences in the prevalence of symptoms. However, there is still a relationship between sick building syndrome and symptoms of workers regardless of workplace stress.^[20]

Specific work-related stressors are related with specific SBS symptoms. Workload and work conflict are significantly associated with general symptoms (headache, abnormal tiredness, sensation of cold or nausea). While crowded workspaces and low work satisfaction are associated with upper respiratory symptoms.^[21] Work productivity has been associated with ventilation rates, a contributing factor to SBS, and there's a significant increase in production as ventilation rates increase, by 1.7% for every two-fold increase of ventilation rate.^[22] Printer effluent, released into the office air as ultra-fine particles (UFPs) as toner is burned during the printing process, may lead to certain SBS symptoms.^[23][24] Printer effluent may contain a variety of toxins to which a subset of office workers are sensitive, triggering SBS symptoms.^[25]

Specific careers are also associated with specific SBS symptoms. Transport, communication, healthcare, and social workers have highest prevalence of general symptoms. Skin symptoms such as eczema, itching, and rashes on hands and face are associated with technical work. Forestry, agriculture, and sales workers have the lowest rates of sick building syndrome symptoms.^[26]

From the assessment done by Fisk and Mudarri, 21% of asthma cases in the United States were caused by wet environments with mold that exist in all indoor environments, such as schools, office buildings, houses and apartments. Fisk and Berkeley Laboratory colleagues also found that the exposure to the mold increases the chances of respiratory issues by 30 to 50 percent.^[27] Additionally, studies showing that health effects with dampness and mold in indoor environments found that increased risk of adverse health effects occurs with dampness or visible mold environments.^[28]

Milton et al. determined the cost of sick leave specific for one business was an estimated $480 per employee, and about five days of sick leave per year could be attributed to low ventilation rates. When comparing low ventilation rate areas of the building to higher ventilation rate areas, the relative risk of short-term sick leave was 1.53 times greater in the low ventilation areas.^[29]

Home

[edit]

Sick building syndrome can be caused by one's home. Laminate flooring may release more SBS-causing chemicals than do stone, tile, and concrete floors.^[17] Recent redecorating and new furnishings within the last year are associated with increased symptoms; so are dampness and related factors, having pets, and cockroaches.^[17] Mosquitoes are related to more symptoms, but it is unclear whether the immediate cause of the symptoms is the mosquitoes or the repellents used against them.^[17]

Mold

[edit]

Main article: Mold health issues

Sick building syndrome may be associated with indoor mold or mycotoxin contamination. However, the attribution of sick building syndrome to mold is controversial and supported by little evidence.^[30][31][32]

Indoor temperature

[edit]

Indoor temperature under 18 °C (64 °F) has been shown to be associated with increased respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, increased blood levels, and increased hospitalization.^[33]

While sick building syndrome (SBS) encompasses a multitude of non-specific symptoms, building-related illness (BRI) comprises specific, diagnosable symptoms caused by certain agents (chemicals, bacteria, fungi, etc.). These can typically be identified, measured, and quantified.^[34] There are usually four causal agents in BRi: immunologic, infectious, toxic, and irritant.^[34] For instance, Legionnaire's disease, usually caused by Legionella pneumophila, involves a specific organism which could be ascertained through clinical findings as the source of contamination within a building.^[34]

• Reduction of time spent in the building
• If living in the building, moving to a new place
• Fixing any deteriorated paint or concrete deterioration
• Regular inspections to indicate for presence of mold or other toxins
• Adequate maintenance of all building mechanical systems
• Toxin-absorbing plants, such as sansevieria^{[35][36][37][38][39][40][41][excessive citations]}
• Roof shingle non-pressure cleaning for removal of algae, mold, and Gloeocapsa magma
• Using ozone to eliminate the many sources, such as VOCs, molds, mildews, bacteria, viruses, and even odors. However, numerous studies identify high-ozone shock treatment as ineffective despite commercial popularity and popular belief.
• Replacement of water-stained ceiling tiles and carpeting
• Only using paints, adhesives, solvents, and pesticides in well-ventilated areas or only using these pollutant sources during periods of non-occupancy
• Increasing the number of air exchanges; the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers recommend a minimum of 8.4 air exchanges per 24-hour period
• Increased ventilation rates that are above the minimum guidelines^[22]
• Proper and frequent maintenance of HVAC systems
• UV-C light in the HVAC plenum
• Installation of HVAC air cleaning systems or devices to remove VOCs and bioeffluents (people odors)
• Central vacuums that completely remove all particles from the house including the ultrafine particles (UFPs) which are less than 0.1 μm
• Regular vacuuming with a HEPA filter vacuum cleaner to collect and retain 99.97% of particles down to and including 0.3 micrometers
• Placing bedding in sunshine, which is related to a study done in a high-humidity area where damp bedding was common and associated with SBS^[17]
• Lighting in the workplace should be designed to give individuals control, and be natural when possible^[42]
• Relocating office printers outside the air conditioning boundary, perhaps to another building
• Replacing current office printers with lower emission rate printers^[43]
• Identification and removal of products containing harmful ingredients

SBS, as a non-specific blanket term, does not have any specific cause or cure. Any known cure would be associated with the specific eventual disease that was cause by exposure to known contaminants. In all cases, alleviation consists of removing the affected person from the building associated. BRI, on the other hand, utilizes treatment appropriate for the contaminant identified within the building (e.g., antibiotics for Legionnaire's disease).^{[citation needed]}

Improving the indoor air quality (IAQ) of a particular building can attenuate, or even eliminate, the continued exposure to toxins. However, a Cochrane review of 12 mold and dampness remediation studies in private homes, workplaces and schools by two independent authors were deemed to be very low to moderate quality of evidence in reducing adult asthma symptoms and results were inconsistent among children.^[44] For the individual, the recovery may be a process involved with targeting the acute symptoms of a specific illness, as in the case of mold toxins.^[45] Treating various building-related illnesses is vital to the overall understanding of SBS. Careful analysis by certified building professionals and physicians can help to identify the exact cause of the BRI, and help to illustrate a causal path to infection. With this knowledge one can, theoretically, remediate a building of contaminants and rebuild the structure with new materials. Office BRI may more likely than not be explained by three events: "Wide range in the threshold of response in any population (susceptibility), a spectrum of response to any given agent, or variability in exposure within large office buildings."^[46]

Isolating any one of the three aspects of office BRI can be a great challenge, which is why those who find themselves with BRI should take three steps, history, examinations, and interventions. History describes the action of continually monitoring and recording the health of workers experiencing BRI, as well as obtaining records of previous building alterations or related activity. Examinations go hand in hand with monitoring employee health. This step is done by physically examining the entire workspace and evaluating possible threats to health status among employees. Interventions follow accordingly based on the results of the Examination and History report.^[46]

Some studies have found that women have higher reports of SBS symptoms than men.^[17][10] It is not entirely clear, however, if this is due to biological, social, or occupational factors.

A 2001 study published in the Journal Indoor Air, gathered 1464 office-working participants to increase the scientific understanding of gender differences under the Sick Building Syndrome phenomenon.^[47] Using questionnaires, ergonomic investigations, building evaluations, as well as physical, biological, and chemical variables, the investigators obtained results that compare with past studies of SBS and gender. The study team found that across most test variables, prevalence rates were different in most areas, but there was also a deep stratification of working conditions between genders as well. For example, men's workplaces tend to be significantly larger and have all-around better job characteristics. Secondly, there was a noticeable difference in reporting rates, specifically that women have higher rates of reporting roughly 20% higher than men. This information was similar to that found in previous studies, thus indicating a potential difference in willingness to report.^[47]

There might be a gender difference in reporting rates of sick building syndrome, because women tend to report more symptoms than men do. Along with this, some studies have found that women have a more responsive immune system and are more prone to mucosal dryness and facial erythema. Also, women are alleged by some to be more exposed to indoor environmental factors because they have a greater tendency to have clerical jobs, wherein they are exposed to unique office equipment and materials (example: blueprint machines, toner-based printers), whereas men often have jobs based outside of offices.^[48]

This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

In the late 1970s, it was noted that nonspecific symptoms were reported by tenants in newly constructed homes, offices, and nurseries. In media it was called "office illness". The term "sick building syndrome" was coined by the WHO in 1986, when they also estimated that 10–30% of newly built office buildings in the West had indoor air problems. Early Danish and British studies reported symptoms.

Poor indoor environments attracted attention. The Swedish allergy study (SOU 1989:76) designated "sick building" as a cause of the allergy epidemic as was feared. In the 1990s, therefore, extensive research into "sick building" was carried out. Various physical and chemical factors in the buildings were examined on a broad front.

The problem was highlighted increasingly in media and was described as a "ticking time bomb". Many studies were performed in individual buildings.

In the 1990s "sick buildings" were contrasted against "healthy buildings". The chemical contents of building materials were highlighted. Many building material manufacturers were actively working to gain control of the chemical content and to replace criticized additives. The ventilation industry advocated above all more well-functioning ventilation. Others perceived ecological construction, natural materials, and simple techniques as a solution.

At the end of the 1990s came an increased distrust of the concept of "sick building". A dissertation at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm 1999 questioned the methodology of previous research, and a Danish study from 2005 showed these flaws experimentally. It was suggested that sick building syndrome was not really a coherent syndrome and was not a disease to be individually diagnosed, but a collection of as many as a dozen semi-related diseases. In 2006 the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare recommended in the medical journal Läkartidningen that "sick building syndrome" should not be used as a clinical diagnosis. Thereafter, it has become increasingly less common to use terms such as sick buildings and sick building syndrome in research. However, the concept remains alive in popular culture and is used to designate the set of symptoms related to poor home or work environment engineering. Sick building is therefore an expression used especially in the context of workplace health.

Sick building syndrome made a rapid journey from media to courtroom where professional engineers and architects became named defendants and were represented by their respective professional practice insurers. Proceedings invariably relied on expert witnesses, medical and technical experts along with building managers, contractors and manufacturers of finishes and furnishings, testifying as to cause and effect. Most of these actions resulted in sealed settlement agreements, none of these being dramatic. The insurers needed a defense based upon Standards of Professional Practice to meet a court decision that declared that in a modern, essentially sealed building, the HVAC systems must produce breathing air for suitable human consumption. ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers, currently with over 50,000 international members) undertook the task of codifying its indoor air quality (IAQ) standard.

ASHRAE empirical research determined that "acceptability" was a function of outdoor (fresh air) ventilation rate and used carbon dioxide as an accurate measurement of occupant presence and activity. Building odors and contaminants would be suitably controlled by this dilution methodology. ASHRAE codified a level of 1,000 ppm of carbon dioxide and specified the use of widely available sense-and-control equipment to assure compliance. The 1989 issue of ASHRAE 62.1-1989 published the whys and wherefores and overrode the 1981 requirements that were aimed at a ventilation level of 5,000 ppm of carbon dioxide (the OSHA workplace limit), federally set to minimize HVAC system energy consumption. This apparently ended the SBS epidemic.

Over time, building materials changed with respect to emissions potential. Smoking vanished and dramatic improvements in ambient air quality, coupled with code compliant ventilation and maintenance, per ASHRAE standards have all contributed to the acceptability of the indoor air environment.^[49][50]

• Aerotoxic syndrome
• Air purifier
• Asthmagen
• Cleanroom
• Electromagnetic hypersensitivity
• Havana syndrome
• Healthy building
• Indoor air quality
• Lead paint
• Multiple chemical sensitivity
• NASA Clean Air Study
• Nosocomial infection
• Particulates
• Power tools
• Renovation
• Somatization disorder
• Fan death

• Martín-Gil J., Yanguas M. C., San José J. F., Rey-Martínez and Martín-Gil F. J. "Outcomes of research into a sick hospital". Hospital Management International, 1997, pp. 80–82. Sterling Publications Limited.
• Åke Thörn, The Emergence and preservation of sick building syndrome, KI 1999.
• Charlotte Brauer, The sick building syndrome revisited, Copenhagen 2005.
• Michelle Murphy, Sick Building Syndrome and the Problem of Uncertainty, 2006.
• Johan Carlson, "Gemensam förklaringsmodell för sjukdomar kopplade till inomhusmiljön finns inte" [Unified explanation for diseases related to indoor environment not found]. Läkartidningen 2006/12.
• Bulletin of the Transilvania University of BraÅŸov, Series I: Engineering Sciences • Vol. 5 (54) No. 1 2012 "Impact of Indoor Environment Quality on Sick Building Syndrome in Indian Leed Certified Buildings". by Jagannathan Mohan

• Best Practices for Indoor Air Quality when Remodeling Your Home, US EPA
• Renovation and Repair, Part of Indoor Air Quality Design Tools for Schools, US EPA
• Addressing Indoor Environmental Concerns During Remodeling, US EPA
• Dust FAQs, UK HSE Archived 2023-03-20 at the Wayback Machine
• CCOHS: Welding - Fumes And Gases | Health Effect of Welding Fumes

Substance in a refrigeration cycle

This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (March 2021)

A refrigerant is a working fluid used in cooling, heating or reverse cooling and heating of air conditioning systems and heat pumps where they undergo a repeated phase transition from a liquid to a gas and back again. Refrigerants are heavily regulated because of their toxicity and flammability^[1] and the contribution of CFC and HCFC refrigerants to ozone depletion^[2] and that of HFC refrigerants to climate change.^[3]

Refrigerants are used in a direct expansion (DX- Direct Expansion) system (circulating system)to transfer energy from one environment to another, typically from inside a building to outside (or vice versa) commonly known as an air conditioner cooling only or cooling & heating reverse DX system or heat pump a heating only DX cycle. Refrigerants can carry 10 times more energy per kg than water, and 50 times more than air.

Refrigerants are controlled substances and classified by International safety regulations ISO 817/5149, AHRAE 34/15 & BS EN 378 due to high pressures (700–1,000 kPa (100–150 psi)), extreme temperatures (−50 °C [−58 °F] to over 100 °C [212 °F]), flammability (A1 class non-flammable, A2/A2L class flammable and A3 class extremely flammable/explosive) and toxicity (B1-low, B2-medium & B3-high). The regulations relate to situations when these refrigerants are released into the atmosphere in the event of an accidental leak not while circulated.

Refrigerants (controlled substances) must only be handled by qualified/certified engineers for the relevant classes (in the UK, C&G 2079 for A1-class and C&G 6187-2 for A2/A2L & A3-class refrigerants).

Refrigerants (A1 class only) Due to their non-flammability, A1 class non-flammability, non-explosivity, and non-toxicity, non-explosivity they have been used in open systems (consumed when used) like fire extinguishers, inhalers, computer rooms fire extinguishing and insulation, etc.) since 1928.

History

[edit]

The first air conditioners and refrigerators employed toxic or flammable gases, such as ammonia, sulfur dioxide, methyl chloride, or propane, that could result in fatal accidents when they leaked.^[4]

In 1928 Thomas Midgley Jr. created the first non-flammable, non-toxic chlorofluorocarbon gas, Freon (R-12). The name is a trademark name owned by DuPont (now Chemours) for any chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC), or hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerant. Following the discovery of better synthesis methods, CFCs such as R-11,^[5] R-12,^[6] R-123^[5] and R-502^[7] dominated the market.

Phasing out of CFCs

[edit]

See also: Montreal Protocol

In the mid-1970s, scientists discovered that CFCs were causing major damage to the ozone layer that protects the earth from ultraviolet radiation, and to the ozone holes over polar regions.^[8][9] This led to the signing of the Montreal Protocol in 1987 which aimed to phase out CFCs and HCFC^[10] but did not address the contributions that HFCs made to climate change. The adoption of HCFCs such as R-22,^[11][12][13] and R-123^[5] was accelerated and so were used in most U.S. homes in air conditioners and in chillers^[14] from the 1980s as they have a dramatically lower Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) than CFCs, but their ODP was still not zero which led to their eventual phase-out.

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) such as R-134a,^[15][16] R-407A,^[17] R-407C,^[18] R-404A,^[7] R-410A^[19] (a 50/50 blend of R-125/R-32) and R-507^[20][21] were promoted as replacements for CFCs and HCFCs in the 1990s and 2000s. HFCs were not ozone-depleting but did have global warming potentials (GWPs) thousands of times greater than CO₂ with atmospheric lifetimes that can extend for decades. This in turn, starting from the 2010s, led to the adoption in new equipment of Hydrocarbon and HFO (hydrofluoroolefin) refrigerants R-32,^[22] R-290,^[23] R-600a,^[23] R-454B,^[24] R-1234yf,^[25][26] R-514A,^[27] R-744 (CO₂),^[28] R-1234ze(E)^[29] and R-1233zd(E),^[30] which have both an ODP of zero and a lower GWP. Hydrocarbons and CO₂ are sometimes called natural refrigerants because they can be found in nature.

The environmental organization Greenpeace provided funding to a former East German refrigerator company to research alternative ozone- and climate-safe refrigerants in 1992. The company developed a hydrocarbon mixture of propane and isobutane, or pure isobutane,^[31] called "Greenfreeze", but as a condition of the contract with Greenpeace could not patent the technology, which led to widespread adoption by other firms.^[32][33][34] Policy and political influence by corporate executives resisted change however,^[35][36] citing the flammability and explosive properties of the refrigerants,^[37] and DuPont together with other companies blocked them in the U.S. with the U.S. EPA.^[38][39]

Beginning on 14 November 1994, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency restricted the sale, possession and use of refrigerants to only licensed technicians, per rules under sections 608 and 609 of the Clean Air Act.^[40] In 1995, Germany made CFC refrigerators illegal.^[41]

In 1996 Eurammon, a European non-profit initiative for natural refrigerants, was established and comprises European companies, institutions, and industry experts.^[42][43][44]

In 1997, FCs and HFCs were included in the Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention on Climate Change.

In 2000 in the UK, the Ozone Regulations^[45] came into force which banned the use of ozone-depleting HCFC refrigerants such as R22 in new systems. The Regulation banned the use of R22 as a "top-up" fluid for maintenance from 2010 for virgin fluid and from 2015 for recycled fluid.^{[citation needed]}

Addressing greenhouse gases

[edit]

With growing interest in natural refrigerants as alternatives to synthetic refrigerants such as CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs, in 2004, Greenpeace worked with multinational corporations like Coca-Cola and Unilever, and later Pepsico and others, to create a corporate coalition called Refrigerants Naturally!.^[41][46] Four years later, Ben & Jerry's of Unilever and General Electric began to take steps to support production and use in the U.S.^[47] It is estimated that almost 75 percent of the refrigeration and air conditioning sector has the potential to be converted to natural refrigerants.^[48]

In 2006, the EU adopted a Regulation on fluorinated greenhouse gases (FCs and HFCs) to encourage to transition to natural refrigerants (such as hydrocarbons). It was reported in 2010 that some refrigerants are being used as recreational drugs, leading to an extremely dangerous phenomenon known as inhalant abuse.^[49]

From 2011 the European Union started to phase out refrigerants with a global warming potential (GWP) of more than 150 in automotive air conditioning (GWP = 100-year warming potential of one kilogram of a gas relative to one kilogram of CO₂) such as the refrigerant HFC-134a (known as R-134a in North America) which has a GWP of 1526.^[50] In the same year the EPA decided in favour of the ozone- and climate-safe refrigerant for U.S. manufacture.^[32][51][52]

A 2018 study by the nonprofit organization "Drawdown" put proper refrigerant management and disposal at the very top of the list of climate impact solutions, with an impact equivalent to eliminating over 17 years of US carbon dioxide emissions.^[53]

In 2019 it was estimated that CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs were responsible for about 10% of direct radiative forcing from all long-lived anthropogenic greenhouse gases.^[54] and in the same year the UNEP published new voluntary guidelines,^[55] however many countries have not yet ratified the Kigali Amendment.

From early 2020 HFCs (including R-404A, R-134a and R-410A) are being superseded: Residential air-conditioning systems and heat pumps are increasingly using R-32. This still has a GWP of more than 600. Progressive devices use refrigerants with almost no climate impact, namely R-290 (propane), R-600a (isobutane) or R-1234yf (less flammable, in cars). In commercial refrigeration also CO₂ (R-744) can be used.

Requirements and desirable properties

[edit]

A refrigerant needs to have: a boiling point that is somewhat below the target temperature (although boiling point can be adjusted by adjusting the pressure appropriately), a high heat of vaporization, a moderate density in liquid form, a relatively high density in gaseous form (which can also be adjusted by setting pressure appropriately), and a high critical temperature. Working pressures should ideally be containable by copper tubing, a commonly available material. Extremely high pressures should be avoided.^{[citation needed]}

The ideal refrigerant would be: non-corrosive, non-toxic, non-flammable, with no ozone depletion and global warming potential. It should preferably be natural with well-studied and low environmental impact. Newer refrigerants address the issue of the damage that CFCs caused to the ozone layer and the contribution that HCFCs make to climate change, but some do raise issues relating to toxicity and/or flammability.^[56]

Common refrigerants

[edit]

Refrigerants with very low climate impact

[edit]

With increasing regulations, refrigerants with a very low global warming potential are expected to play a dominant role in the 21st century,^[57] in particular, R-290 and R-1234yf. Starting from almost no market share in 2018,^[58] low GWPO devices are gaining market share in 2022.

Code	Chemical	Name	GWP 20yr[59]	GWP 100yr[59]	Status	Commentary
R-290	C3H8	Propane		3.3[60]	Increasing use	Low cost, widely available and efficient. They also have zero ozone depletion potential. Despite their flammability, they are increasingly used in domestic refrigerators and heat pumps. In 2010, about one-third of all household refrigerators and freezers manufactured globally used isobutane or an isobutane/propane blend, and this was expected to increase to 75% by 2020.[61]
R-600a	HC(CH3)3	Isobutane		3.3	Widely used	See R-290.
R-717	NH3	Ammonia	0	0[62]	Widely used	Commonly used before the popularisation of CFCs, it is again being considered but does suffer from the disadvantage of toxicity, and it requires corrosion-resistant components, which restricts its domestic and small-scale use. Anhydrous ammonia is widely used in industrial refrigeration applications and hockey rinks because of its high energy efficiency and low cost.
R-1234yf HFO-1234yf	C3H2F4	2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene		<1		Less performance but also less flammable than R-290.[57] GM announced that it would start using "hydro-fluoro olefin", HFO-1234yf, in all of its brands by 2013.[63]
R-744	CO2	Carbon dioxide	1	1	In use	Was used as a refrigerant prior to the discovery of CFCs (this was also the case for propane)[4] and now having a renaissance due to it being non-ozone depleting, non-toxic and non-flammable. It may become the working fluid of choice to replace current HFCs in cars, supermarkets, and heat pumps. Coca-Cola has fielded CO2-based beverage coolers and the U.S. Army is considering CO2 refrigeration.[64][65] Due to the need to operate at pressures of up to 130 bars (1,900 psi; 13,000 kPa), CO2 systems require highly resistant components, however these have already been developed for mass production in many sectors.

Most used

[edit]

Code	Chemical	Name	Global warming potential 20yr[59]	GWP 100yr[59]	Status	Commentary
R-32 HFC-32	CH2F2	Difluoromethane	2430	677	Widely used	Promoted as climate-friendly substitute for R-134a and R-410A, but still with high climate impact. Has excellent heat transfer and pressure drop performance, both in condensation and vaporisation.[66] It has an atmospheric lifetime of nearly 5 years.[67] Currently used in residential and commercial air-conditioners and heat pumps.
R-134a HFC-134a	CH2FCF3	1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane	3790	1550	Widely used	Most used in 2020 for hydronic heat pumps in Europe and the United States in spite of high GWP.[58] Commonly used in automotive air conditioners prior to phase out which began in 2012.
R-410A		50% R-32 / 50% R-125 (pentafluoroethane)	Between 2430 (R-32) and 6350 (R-125)	> 677	Widely Used	Most used in split heat pumps / AC by 2018. Almost 100% share in the USA.[58] Being phased out in the US starting in 2022.[68][69]

Banned / Phased out

[edit]

Code	Chemical	Name	Global warming potential 20yr[59]	GWP 100yr[59]	Status	Commentary
R-11 CFC-11	CCl3F	Trichlorofluoromethane	6900	4660	Banned	Production was banned in developed countries by Montreal Protocol in 1996
R-12 CFC-12	CCl2F2	Dichlorodifluoromethane	10800	10200	Banned	Also known as Freon, a widely used chlorofluorocarbon halomethane (CFC). Production was banned in developed countries by Montreal Protocol in 1996, and in developing countries (article 5 countries) in 2010.[70]
R-22 HCFC-22	CHClF2	Chlorodifluoromethane	5280	1760	Being phased out	A widely used hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) and powerful greenhouse gas with a GWP equal to 1810. Worldwide production of R-22 in 2008 was about 800 Gg per year, up from about 450 Gg per year in 1998. R-438A (MO-99) is a R-22 replacement.[71]
R-123 HCFC-123	CHCl2CF3	2,2-Dichloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane	292	79	US phase-out	Used in large tonnage centrifugal chiller applications. All U.S. production and import of virgin HCFCs will be phased out by 2030, with limited exceptions.[72] R-123 refrigerant was used to retrofit some chiller that used R-11 refrigerant Trichlorofluoromethane. The production of R-11 was banned in developed countries by Montreal Protocol in 1996.[73]

Other

[edit]

Code	Chemical	Name	Global warming potential 20yr[59]	GWP 100yr[59]	Commentary
R-152a HFC-152a	CH3CHF2	1,1-Difluoroethane	506	138	As a compressed air duster
R-407C		Mixture of difluoromethane and pentafluoroethane and 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane			A mixture of R-32, R-125, and R-134a
R-454B		Difluoromethane and 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene			HFOs blend of refrigerants Difluoromethane (R-32) and 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoropropene (R-1234yf).[74][75][76][77]
R-513A		An HFO/HFC blend (56% R-1234yf/44%R-134a)			May replace R-134a as an interim alternative[78]
R-514A		HFO-1336mzz-Z/trans-1,2- dichloroethylene (t-DCE)			An hydrofluoroolefin (HFO)-based refrigerant to replace R-123 in low pressure centrifugal chillers for commercial and industrial applications.[79][80]

Refrigerant reclamation and disposal

[edit]

Coolant and refrigerants are found throughout the industrialized world, in homes, offices, and factories, in devices such as refrigerators, air conditioners, central air conditioning systems (HVAC), freezers, and dehumidifiers. When these units are serviced, there is a risk that refrigerant gas will be vented into the atmosphere either accidentally or intentionally, hence the creation of technician training and certification programs in order to ensure that the material is conserved and managed safely. Mistreatment of these gases has been shown to deplete the ozone layer and is suspected to contribute to global warming.^[81]

With the exception of isobutane and propane (R600a, R441A and R290), ammonia and CO₂ under Section 608 of the United States' Clean Air Act it is illegal to knowingly release any refrigerants into the atmosphere.^[82][83]

Refrigerant reclamation is the act of processing used refrigerant gas which has previously been used in some type of refrigeration loop such that it meets specifications for new refrigerant gas. In the United States, the Clean Air Act of 1990 requires that used refrigerant be processed by a certified reclaimer, which must be licensed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the material must be recovered and delivered to the reclaimer by EPA-certified technicians.^[84]

Refrigerants may be divided into three classes according to their manner of absorption or extraction of heat from the substances to be refrigerated:^{[citation needed]}

• Class 1: This class includes refrigerants that cool by phase change (typically boiling), using the refrigerant's latent heat.
• Class 2: These refrigerants cool by temperature change or 'sensible heat', the quantity of heat being the specific heat capacity x the temperature change. They are air, calcium chloride brine, sodium chloride brine, alcohol, and similar nonfreezing solutions. The purpose of Class 2 refrigerants is to receive a reduction of temperature from Class 1 refrigerants and convey this lower temperature to the area to be cooled.
• Class 3: This group consists of solutions that contain absorbed vapors of liquefiable agents or refrigerating media. These solutions function by nature of their ability to carry liquefiable vapors, which produce a cooling effect by the absorption of their heat of solution. They can also be classified into many categories.

The R- numbering system was developed by DuPont (which owned the Freon trademark), and systematically identifies the molecular structure of refrigerants made with a single halogenated hydrocarbon. ASHRAE has since set guidelines for the numbering system as follows:^[85]

R-X₁X₂X₃X₄

• X₁ = Number of unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds (omit if zero)
• X₂ = Number of carbon atoms minus 1 (omit if zero)
• X₃ = Number of hydrogen atoms plus 1
• X₄ = Number of fluorine atoms

• R-xx Methane Series
• R-1xx Ethane Series
• R-2xx Propane Series
• R-4xx Zeotropic blend
• R-5xx Azeotropic blend
• R-6xx Saturated hydrocarbons (except for propane which is R-290)
• R-7xx Inorganic Compounds with a molar mass < 100
• R-7xxx Inorganic Compounds with a molar mass ≥ 100

• Number Only Most symmetrical isomer
• Lower Case Suffix (a, b, c, etc.) indicates increasingly unsymmetrical isomers

• Number Only If only one isomer exists; otherwise:
• First lower case suffix (a-f):
  • a Suffix Cl₂ central carbon substitution
  • b Suffix Cl, F central carbon substitution
  • c Suffix F₂ central carbon substitution
  • d Suffix Cl, H central carbon substitution
  • e Suffix F, H central carbon substitution
  • f Suffix H₂ central carbon substitution
• 2nd Lower Case Suffix (a, b, c, etc.) Indicates increasingly unsymmetrical isomers

• First lower case suffix (x, y, z):
  • x Suffix Cl substitution on central atom
  • y Suffix F substitution on central atom
  • z Suffix H substitution on central atom
• Second lower case suffix (a-f):
  • a Suffix =CCl₂ methylene substitution
  • b Suffix =CClF methylene substitution
  • c Suffix =CF₂ methylene substitution
  • d Suffix =CHCl methylene substitution
  • e Suffix =CHF methylene substitution
  • f Suffix =CH₂ methylene substitution

• Upper Case Suffix (A, B, C, etc.) Same blend with different compositions of refrigerants

• R-Cxxx Cyclic compound
• R-Exxx Ether group is present
• R-CExxx Cyclic compound with an ether group
• R-4xx/5xx + Upper Case Suffix (A, B, C, etc.) Same blend with different composition of refrigerants
• R-6xx + Lower Case Letter Indicates increasingly unsymmetrical isomers
• 7xx/7xxx + Upper Case Letter Same molar mass, different compound
• R-xxxxB# Bromine is present with the number after B indicating how many bromine atoms
• R-xxxxI# Iodine is present with the number after I indicating how many iodine atoms
• R-xxx(E) Trans Molecule
• R-xxx(Z) Cis Molecule

For example, R-134a has 2 carbon atoms, 2 hydrogen atoms, and 4 fluorine atoms, an empirical formula of tetrafluoroethane. The "a" suffix indicates that the isomer is unbalanced by one atom, giving 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane. R-134 (without the "a" suffix) would have a molecular structure of 1,1,2,2-Tetrafluoroethane.

The same numbers are used with an R- prefix for generic refrigerants, with a "Propellant" prefix (e.g., "Propellant 12") for the same chemical used as a propellant for an aerosol spray, and with trade names for the compounds, such as "Freon 12". Recently, a practice of using abbreviations HFC- for hydrofluorocarbons, CFC- for chlorofluorocarbons, and HCFC- for hydrochlorofluorocarbons has arisen, because of the regulatory differences among these groups.^{[citation needed]}

ASHRAE Standard 34, Designation and Safety Classification of Refrigerants, assigns safety classifications to refrigerants based upon toxicity and flammability.

Using safety information provided by producers, ASHRAE assigns a capital letter to indicate toxicity and a number to indicate flammability. The letter "A" is the least toxic and the number 1 is the least flammable.^[86]

• Brine (Refrigerant)
• Section 608
• List of Refrigerants

• IPCC (2013). Stocker, T. F.; Qin, D.; Plattner, G.-K.; Tignor, M.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis (PDF). Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05799-9. (pb: 978-1-107-66182-0). Fifth Assessment Report - Climate Change 2013
  • Myhre, G.; Shindell, D.; Bréon, F.-M.; Collins, W.; et al. (2013). "Chapter 8: Anthropogenic and Natural Radiative Forcing" (PDF). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. pp. 659–740.
• IPCC (2021). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pirani, A.; Connors, S. L.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis (PDF). Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press (In Press).
• Forster, Piers; Storelvmo, Trude (2021). "Chapter 7: The Earth's Energy Budget, Climate Feedbacks, and Climate Sensitivity" (PDF). IPCC AR6 WG1 2021.

• "High GWP refrigerants". California Air Resources Board. Retrieved 13 February 2022.
• "BSRIA's view on refrigerant trends in AC and Heat Pump segments". 2020. Retrieved 2022-02-14.
• Yadav, Saurabh; Liu, Jie; Kim, Sung Chul (2022). "A comprehensive study on 21st-century refrigerants - R290 and R1234yf: A review". International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 122: 121947. Bibcode:2022IJHMT.18221947Y. doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2021.121947. S2CID 240534198.

• US Environmental Protection Agency page on the GWPs of various substances
• Green Cooling Initiative on alternative natural refrigerants cooling technologies
• International Institute of Refrigeration Archived 2018-09-25 at the Wayback Machine